Technology

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File:Steam engine in action.gif
Animation of a steam engine with centrifugal governor in action.
A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835. Textiles were the leading industry of the Industrial Revolution, and mechanized factories, powered by a central water wheel or steam engine, were the new workplace.
Centrifugal governor of a Steam engine
"Magnetic-electric machines" (c. 1890)
Incandescent light bulb for 230 V with 40 watts power input, clear glass bulb and an Edison base E14

Technology ("the teaching or science of craft", from Greek: τέχνη téchne "skill, artistry, craft" and -λογία -logia "teaching, learning, reason") in its broadest sense encompasses all the techniques, processes, methods, skills and theoretical knowledge to transform nature for a purpose by producing artistic, craft or industrial products, or to perform services in order to satisfy material as well as cultural needs. Moreover modern technology can be embedded in machines to allow for more or less autonomous operation without detailed knowledge of their workings.

Technology that is state of the art and uses the most modern processes is called high technology, cutting-edge technology or high tech for short. The philosophy of technology deals with the philosophical and the ethics of technology specifically with the ethical implications of technology and its relationship to man and the world or nature.

The history of technology is closely interwoven with human history. From the very beginning, technology was an essential and necessary part of being human, but for a long time it was limited to the narrowest needs. Technology experienced a first significant upswing with the first advanced civilisations of the Egyptian-Chaldean period, when humanity began to develop the sentient soul. A further advance was achieved in the Greco-Latin period. However, the great, almost explosive breakthrough of technology came only with our present consciousness-soul age, especially with the Industrial Revolution that began in the late 18th century and intensified from the middle of the 19th century. Technology itself became an essential and necessary driving force for the further development of the consciousness soul. Associated with this were far-reaching effects on the natural and social environment. In order to assess the risks to humans and the earth associated with rapid technological progress, the research field of technology assessment (TA) emerged in the USA in the 1960s and increasingly spread to Europe from the 1970s onwards.

Technology on the Path from Nature to Sub-Nature

Rudolf Steiner has made it clear that with the highly industrialised technology of modern times, especially since the ever-expanding use of modern electrical engineering, humanity has taken the path from nature to sub-nature and has thus increasingly come under the influence of Ahriman. This is in itself a necessary step in the development of humanity, but it needs to be balanced by a corresponding conscious spiritual development if humanity is not to be harmed by it.

„One speaks of the fact that with the overcoming of the philosophical age, the scientific age arose in the middle of the nineteenth century. And one also speaks of this scientific age continuing today, while at the same time many emphasise that one has found one's way back to certain philosophical intentions.

All this corresponds to the paths of knowledge that the newer age has taken, but not to the paths of life. With his ideas, man still lives in nature, even if he brings mechanical thinking into the conception of nature. With his life of will, however, he lives to such an extent in the mechanics of technical events that this has long since given the scientific age a completely new nuance.

If we want to understand human life, we must first look at it from two sides. From previous lives on earth man brings with him the ability to imagine the cosmic from the earth's surroundings and that which is active in the earthly sphere. Through the senses he perceives the cosmic that is active on earth, and through his thinking organisation he thinks the cosmic that is active on earth from the earth environment.

Thus he lives through his physical body in perceiving, through his etheric body in thinking.

That which goes on in his astral body and in his I, operates in more hidden regions of the soul. It operates, for example, in fate. But one must first seek it out not in the complicated contexts of fate, but in the elementary, simple processes of life.

Man connects himself with certain earthly forces by orienting his organism into these forces. He learns to stand upright and to walk, he learns to place himself with his arms and hands in the balance of the earthly forces.

Now these forces are not those which work in from the cosmos, but are merely earthly.

In reality, nothing that man experiences is an abstraction. He only does not see through where the experience comes from, and so he forms abstractions from ideas about realities. Man talks about mechanical regularity. He believes that he has abstracted it out of the interrelationships of nature. This is not the case, however, but everything that man experiences in the soul in terms of purely mechanical laws is experienced inwardly in his relationship of orientation to the earthly world (in his standing, walking, etc.).

In this way, however, the mechanical characterises itself as the purely earthly. For the natural law, in colour, tone and so on, has flowed into the earthly from the cosmos. Only in the earthly realm is the mechanical implanted in the natural law, just as man with his own experience only confronts it in the earthly realm.

By far the greater part of what is at work in culture today through technology, and into which he is spun to the highest degree with his life, is not nature, but sub-nature. It is a world that emancipates itself downwards from nature.

See how the Oriental, when he strives for the spirit, seeks to get out of the states of equilibrium which come merely from the earthly. He assumes a position of meditation which brings him into the mere cosmic equilibrium. The earth then no longer affects the orientation of his organism. (This is not said for imitation, but only to clarify what has been said here. Those who know my writings know how Eastern and Western spiritual life differ in this direction).

Man needed the relationship to the merely earthly for the development of his consciousness soul. In recent times there has been a tendency to realise everywhere in action that which man must live into. By settling into the merely earthly, he meets the ahrimanic. With his own being he must bring himself into the right relationship with this ahrimanic.

But in the present course of the technical age, the possibility of finding the right relation to the ahrimanic culture is still eluding him. Man must find the strength, the inner power of knowledge, in order not to be overwhelmed by Ahriman in the technical culture. The sub-nature must be understood as such. This can only be done if man in spiritual knowledge ascends at least as far to the extraterrestrial super-nature as he has descended in technology to the sub-nature. The age needs a knowledge that goes beyond nature, because it must inwardly come to terms with a dangerously effective content of life that has sunk below nature. Of course, we are not speaking here of returning to earlier cultural conditions, but of man finding the way to bring the new cultural conditions into a right relationship with himself and with the cosmos.

Today only a few people feel what important spiritual tasks are developing for man. Electricity, which after its discovery was praised as the soul of natural existence, must be recognised in its power to lead down from nature into sub-nature. But man must not glide along with it.

In the time when there was no technology independent of nature itself, man found the spirit in the view of nature. The technology that was becoming independent made man stare at the mechanistic-material as that which was now becoming scientific for him. In this, everything divine-spiritual, which is connected with the origin of human development, is absent. The purely ahrimanic dominates the sphere.

In a spiritual science the other sphere is created, in which the ahrimanic is not present at all. And it is precisely through the discerning reception of that spirituality to which the ahrimanic powers have no access that man is strengthened to face Ahriman in the world.“ (Lit.:GA 26, p. 255ff)

Technology and Spiritual Development

By taking the necessary materials for our technology from nature, the natural context is increasingly destroyed. The elementary beings working in nature are thereby driven out of nature, but these elementary beings feel this as a liberation, as a blessing. However, nature is also becoming poorer in elementary beings as a result. If we now assemble the dead materials taken from nature into machines, these will inevitably be populated by ahrimanic elemental beings. In our increasingly mechanised world, we are therefore also increasingly exposed to the effects of these ahrimanic elementary beings, namely in our sleep, and our spiritual development is thereby increasingly impeded. This development will be unstoppable and resisting it will do us no good, as Rudolf Steiner also emphatically emphasises. In future, everything will depend on our succeeding in strengthening our spiritual forces against this resistance in such a way that they create the necessary counterweight to the increasing ahrimanisation of our world. Only on this path is it also possible to develop a moral technology of the future that does not rely solely on the dead, ahrimanised physical forces, but brings etheric forces into action, as for example Rudolf Steiner indicated in his third mystery drama, The Guardian of the Threshold, through the so-called Strader apparatus (see also → Technology and Morality).

„First of all, let us take an external look at what happens when we develop modern technology. What happens is nothing other than, I would say, a work in two stages. The first stage is that we destroy the coherence of nature. We pound the quarries and take the stones out of them, we maltreat the forests and take the wood out of them - one could go on - in short, we first create raw materials by pounding and wearing down the coherence of nature. And the second stage consists in putting together again into a machine what has been cut out of nature in this way, according to the laws which have been recognised as laws of nature. These are the two stages, if one looks at the matter externally.

But how is the thing viewed inwardly? Seen inwardly, the thing is like this: when we wear down nature, first of all the mineral, this - we know it from earlier observations - is connected with a certain feeling of well-being which the spiritual elementary feels in it. But that should worry us less here. In what is going on, however, it is important that we expel from nature the elementary spirits which hold nature together and which belong to the realm, the sphere of the regular progressing hierarchies. In all existence in nature there are elementary spiritual beings. By wearing down nature, we press the spirits of nature out into the realm of the spiritual. This is indeed what is continually connected with the first stage. We smash and wear down material nature and thereby release from this nature the spirits of nature, which we chase out, as it were, from the sphere assigned to them by the Yahweh gods into the realm where they can flutter freely and are no longer bound to the dwelling-place assigned to them. So we can also call the first stage the expulsion of the spirits of nature. The second stage is this, where we put together, according to the laws of nature that we have recognised, what we have martyred out of nature. Yes, when we form a machine or a combination of machines from raw materials according to a law of nature that we have recognised, then we again place certain spiritual beings into the structure that we form.

The structure that we form is by no means a spiritless one. By forming it, we create the bed for other spiritual beings, and these spiritual beings, which we now conjure up into our mechanical structures, are the beings that belong to the ahrimanic hierarchy. So in the first stage we meet the nature spirits that are in continuous development, we drive them out, and in the other stage we unite these ahrimanic spirits with what we build up as mechanisms or other works of technology. The effect of our living in this technical milieu in modern times is that we create for ourselves an ahrimanic environment for what we have sleeping within us either by night or by day. It is therefore no wonder that he who is on the first stage of initiation, when he awakens and brings in what he has experienced outside in the roaring, clamouring and noise, feels it to be destructive when he enters the physical and etheric body with his I and his astral body. For he brings, as it were, the result of living together with the ahrimanic elemental spirits into his own organism. We can say that as a third stage, as a cultural stage, we have this from the technology surrounding us, that we stuff ourselves with ahrimanic spirits, really stuff ourselves with them. - This is how things look inwardly.

If we now look back from what we have come to know, as it were, as the occult side of modern life, to those times when man lived more in such a way that he only slept separated from nature by the spiritually slightly permeable walls, or also worked by day within nature, in which the right spirits of the Yahweh hierarchy were still within, we must say: At that time the souls of men, the I and the astral body, brought into the physical and etheric body the nature-spiritualities which had a stimulating effect on the inner life of the soul. And the further back we go in the history of the development of mankind, the more we find that which is becoming rarer and rarer today, that men do not stuff themselves with the ahrimanic spirits of technology, but with the spirits of nature which are developing in a straight line and which, if we may use the expression, have united the good spirits of the hierarchies with what is happening or going on in the facts or beings outside in nature.

Now the human being reaches that connection which he must have if he wants to be a human being in the true sense of the word, only by seeking this connection through life in his inner being, by being able to descend so far into the depths of his soul in his inner experience that he finds the forces in these depths, which bring him together with the spiritual of the cosmos, from which he descends and in which he is embedded, and from which he can be separated, from which he has already been separated by sense perception and intellectual thinking, but now also by the fact, as we have seen, that modern life stuffs him with ahrimanic spirits. Only by descending into the depths of his own being does man come into contact with the divine-spiritual beings who are good and wholesome for him, with the spiritual hierarchies which are continually developing in a straight line. This coming together with the spiritual hierarchies, for which we were actually born spiritually, this living together with them is made more and more difficult for man by the world becoming more and more permeated with the milieu of modern technology. Man is, as it were, being torn out of his spiritual-cosmic context, and that which he should develop in order to remain in connection with the spiritual-soul of the cosmos is being dampened and dimmed in his inner being.

He who has already gone through the first steps of initiation notices that all the machinery which pervades modern life penetrates into the spiritual-soul humanity in such a way that it kills and destroys much of it. And such a one notices that through this destruction it is made especially difficult for him to really develop the inner forces which bring man into connection with the rightful - do not misunderstand the word - spiritual beings of the hierarchies. When a man who has thus taken the first steps of initiation meditates in a modern railway carriage or on a modern steamship and wants to settle down in the spiritual world, he naturally makes an effort to develop in himself the power of vision and seeing which will carry him up into the spiritual world, but he notices how the Ahrimanic world stuffs him with everything that is contrary to this devotion to the spiritual world, and the struggle is then a tremendous one. One can say that it is an inner struggle that is experienced in the etheric body, a gruelling and crushing struggle. Of course, others who have not gone through the first steps of initiation also go through this struggle, and the only difference is that those who have gone through the first steps of initiation consciously recognise it. Everyone has to go through it, everyone experiences it in its effects.

It would be the very wrong thing to say that we must resist what technology has brought us in modern life, that we must beware of Ahriman, that we must withdraw from this modern life. In a certain sense, that would mean spiritual cowardice. The true remedy is not to allow the powers of the modern soul to weaken and to withdraw from modern life, but to make the powers of the soul strong so that modern life can be endured. A brave attitude towards modern life is what is necessary according to the world karma, and that is why true spiritual science has this peculiar character, that it demands efforts, more or less even intensive efforts, from the human soul from the outset.“ (Lit.:GA 275, p. 22ff)

Technology and Freedom

„In the machine, man has surrounded himself with something transparent but alien to him. He has linked his life to this stranger. The machine stands there cold and far from man, a triumph of reliable knowledge; next to it stands man himself, darkness in front of him, when he looks into himself with this knowledge.

And yet: humanity had to educate itself to look into the transparent dead if it was to become fully awake. It needs the image-knowledge of that which is alien to its own being in order to be awake. For all preceding knowledge is co-determined out of the darkness of man's own nature; it only becomes clear before the soul when the human soul becomes a mere mirror which only creates images of that which is alien to man. Before, when man spoke of knowledge, he had in his soul content the urges, the contents of his own nature, which as such could not be clear. His ideas were interspersed with being; but they were not clear. - The images of lifeless being are clear. But now man has in these images not only the revelation of the inanimate, but also inner experiences. Images, by their own nature, cannot cause anything. They are powerless. If man experiences his moral impulses in the realm of the imageable in the same way as he has acquired them in lifeless nature, then he rises to freedom. For images cannot determine the will like instincts, passions or instincts. Only the age that developed mathematics-like pictorial thinking on the dead can guide man to freedom.

Cold technology gives human thinking a character that leads to freedom. Between levers, wheels and motors lives only a dead spirit; but in this realm of the dead the free human soul awakens. It must awaken the spirit in itself which before was only more or less dreaming when it still animated nature. The dreaming becomes awake thinking in the coldness of the machine.“ (Lit.:GA 36, p. 84f)

Technology and Natural Rhythms

„As soon as we get beyond the merely spectral, beyond the merely ghostly of natural phenomena, we encounter spiritual things. That is to say, all research into so-called gross matter is quite nonsensical in general. Once we give up - and humanity will do so before the fourth millennium - the search for the gross sensual as the basis of nature, then we will come to something quite different, we will find rhythms, rhythmic orders everywhere in nature. These rhythmic orders are there, only today's materialistic science generally makes fun of these rhythmic orders. We have expressed this rhythmic order figuratively in our seven pillars, in the whole configuration of our building here. But this rhythmic order is present in all of nature. One leaf after another grows rhythmically on the plant; the flower petals are arranged rhythmically, everything is arranged rhythmically. Rhythmically the fever comes on during an illness, flows off again; rhythmically is the whole of life. The penetration of the rhythms of nature, that will be true natural science.

But by penetrating the rhythms of nature, one also comes to a certain use of rhythm in technology. This then is the aim of future technology: to perform tremendous work by means of harmonising vibrations, vibrations which are aroused in the small and which are then transferred to the great, by simply tuning together.“ (Lit.:GA 184, p. 295)

The Forging Together of the Human Being with the Machine Being

Rudolf Steiner has pointed out that in the future there will be an ever closer union of man with the machines he creates. Through his power of thought, man will direct the machines, which will increasingly become a part of his own being. Clear beginnings of this, as propagated in particular by the ideology of transhumanism emanating from the West, are already present today.

„Once more I want to point out that in this fifth post-Atlantean period humanity is about to enter into a special treatment of great questions of life which have been obscured in a certain way by the wisdom of the past. I have already referred to them. The one great question of life can be described by saying that an attempt should be made to place the spiritual-etheric in the service of outer practical life. - I have drawn your attention to the fact that the fifth post-Atlantean period will have to solve the problem of how human moods, the movement of human moods, can be transferred in wave motion to machines, how man must be brought into connection with that which must become ever more mechanical and mechanical. That is why eight days ago today I drew your attention to the outward way in which this mechanisation is being taken from a certain part of our earth's surface. I gave you an example of how American thinking is trying to extend mechanisation over human life itself. I have given this example of the breaks that are to be exploited so that, instead of far fewer tons, up to fifty tons can be loaded by a number of workers: one need only really introduce the Darwinian principle of selection into life.

In such places the will is there to harness human power together with machine power. These things must not be treated as if they had to be fought. That is quite a wrong view. These things will not be absent, they will come. It is only a question of whether, in the course of world history, they will be staged by men who are selflessly familiar with the great aims of earthly development and who shape these things for the salvation of men, or whether they will be staged by those groups of men who exploit these things only in an egoistic or group-egoistic sense. That is what it is all about. It is not the what that matters in this case, the what certainly comes; it is the how that matters, how things are done. For the what is simply in the sense of the development of the earth. The forging together of the human being with the machine being will be a great and important problem for the rest of the evolution of the earth.

I have often pointed out, also in public lectures, that the consciousness of man is connected with degrading forces. Twice I have said in public lectures in Basel that we are dying into our nervous system. - These forces, these dying forces, will become more and more powerful. And the connection will be established between the forces dying in man, which are related to electrical and magnetic forces and the external machine forces. Man will, so to speak, be able to conduct his intentions, his thoughts, into the machine forces. Yet undiscovered forces in human nature will be discovered, such forces that act on the external electric and magnetic forces.

That is one problem: the merging of the human being with the mechanism, which must become more and more widespread in the future. The other problem lies in that which will call the spiritual conditions to our aid. But this can only be done when the time is ripe, and when a sufficient number of people are prepared for it in the right way.“ (Lit.:GA 178, p. 218f)

Dangers of Technology

Typewriting

Bumper typewriter "Adler" model No. 7 (without front cover), built around 1915

Rudolf Steiner gave examples of the health risks associated with individual technical inventions. For example, typing has a damaging effect on the rhythmic system.

„One can see particularly vividly what is happening inside the human being if one then finds it placed before one in clairvoyant imagining: every press of a key becomes a lightning strike in this objective viewing of the subjective. And that which is set up as the human heart is continually pierced by these lightning strikes. And now, on the typewriter, one key is not placed next to the other according to a spiritual principle, but according to the pure principle of utility, the letters which are needed more often, so that one can write quickly. The result of all this is that there is not exactly much spirituality in it. So that moving the finger from one key to the other not only makes the lightning strikes appear as lightning strikes, but also disorganises them. In short, it is a terrible thunderstorm in which a typewriter objectifies itself.“ (Lit.:GA 303, p. 167f)

Audiovisual Media

Thomas Alva Edison with his second phonograph, photographed by Levin Corbin Handy in Washington, April 1878

Cinema, television, video, radio, CD players, mobile phones and computers are now almost ubiquitous in modern industrialised countries and are more intimately connected with human life than any other technical product. That there are very special dangers associated with these audiovisual media was made clear by Rudolf Steiner using the example of the gramophone:

„But all that humanity will have to go through in order to really find its way up the innermost impulse into the spiritual world, that is connected with many a seemingly insignificant cultural civilisation system and symptom.

Forgive me for bringing together the great things I have just said with the small things, but one can see the great things in the small symptoms. A few days ago I said that it is precisely here, where the imaginations are already firmly established in the mind, that the cars interfere. I am not speaking against cars, I have already mentioned that; anthroposophy cannot pronounce anything reactionary. Of course, I am passionately fond of driving a car when it is necessary, for one must not want to cut back the world, but one must be able to counteract that which appears on the one side with the other, so that driving in a car is quite right. But apart from driving a car and all that goes with it, there must be a heart that is inclined towards the spiritual world. And then humanity, even if other things come along than driving a car, will be able to assert itself further precisely through its own power and freedom, which had to arise, but which in turn must also lead to the Bodhisattva.

Against the things that enter the world for the mechanical performance of human service, humanity will be able to help itself. And so one can already say: humanity will be able to help itself against all that comes from cars, typewriters and so on.

The matter is different - forgive me for concluding with this apparently trivial matter - with the gramophone. With the gramophone, humanity wants to force art into the mechanical. So if humanity were to acquire a passionate predilection for such things, where what comes down into the world as a shadow of the spiritual is mechanised, if humanity were to show enthusiasm for something like that, of which the gramophone is an expression, then it could no longer help itself. The gods would have to help them.

Well, the gods are merciful, and today there is also the hope that, with regard to the advance of human civilisation, the merciful gods themselves will continue to help over such aberrations of taste as are expressed in the gramophone.“ (Lit.:GA 227, p. 222f)

„Many phenomena of present-day cultural life have a destructive effect, for example, especially also the light pictures, which definitely damage the etheric body. Light pictures also excite sensuality.“ (Lit.:GA 130, p. 326)

Nuclear Energy

Castle Romeo nuclear test (yield 11 Mt) on Bikini Atoll (1954).

When asked whether, according to Albert Einstein's theory that a tremendous amount of energy is stored in a kilogram of mass according to the formula E = mc2, a new source of power could be tapped by dissolving, i.e. spiritualising, matter, Rudolf Steiner replied:

„Behind these things there is a great deal to seek out the power that one gets when one splinters mass. It is then a question of whether this power can be used technically - the theoretical aspects do not present any particular difficulties. And it would depend on whether one could utilise these gigantic forces when one exposes them. For if the motor through which one wants to utilise them is immediately shattered by the energy of these forces, they cannot be utilised. It is a question of gaining the possibility of utilising these energies in mechanical machine systems. Then the way has been found. In purely theoretical terms, if we are to expose the highest radiant energy - or a high radiant energy - of any matter, in order to be able to utilise it in a mechanical system, we need a matter that offers resistance to this energy. The possibility of releasing this energy is there, it is nearer than using the energy.“ (Lit.:GA 342a, p. 146)

Nuclear fission, which was only discovered jointly by Otto Hahn and Fritz Straßmann in 1938 and in contact with Lise Meitner, was not yet known at that time.

The Dangers of Abstract Thinking Associated with Technology

Not only the application of technology as such, but also the abstract thinking necessary for its production, if it is cultivated unilaterally without appropriate spiritual compensation, endangers the future of humanity:

„You see, today it can still seem relatively harmless to people if they only think out those thoughts, automatic, lifeless thoughts, which arise when one grasps the mineral world and the mineral on plants, the mineral on animals, the mineral on man. I would like to say that people today enjoy these thoughts, they feel comfortable with them as materialists, because only they are thought of today. But think of it, if men continued to think in this way, if men really formed nothing else but such thoughts, until the time when in the 8th millennium the lunar existence unites again with the earthly existence, what would then come into being? Yes, the beings of which I have spoken will gradually come down to earth, volcanic beings, volcanic supermen, Venus supermen, Mercury supermen, Sun supermen and so on will unite with earth existence. But if men continue to make mere opposition to them, the earth existence will pass into chaos in the course of the next millennia. Earthly people will be able to continue to develop their intellect automatically; it can also develop within barbarism; but being fully human will not be drawn into this intellect, and people will have no relationship with those beings who want to lean down into earthly existence.

And all those beings which are now thought of incorrectly by man, the beings which are thought of incorrectly for the reason that the mere shadowy intellect thinks only of the mineral, I would like to say the grossly material in the mineral kingdom, in the plant kingdom, in the animal kingdom and even in the human kingdom, these thoughts of men which have no reality, will become reality at one stroke when the moon unites with the earth. And out of the earth will sprout a terrible race of beings, which in their character stand between the mineral kingdom and the vegetable kingdom as automaton-like beings with a superabundant intellect, with an intense intellect. With this movement, which will take hold over the earth, the earth will be covered as with a web, a web of terrible spiders, spiders of a gigantic wisdom, which, however, in their organisation do not even reach up to the plant kingdom, terrible spiders, which will entangle themselves in each other, which in their outer movements will imitate everything that men thought up with the shadowy intellect, which did not allow itself to be stimulated by that which is to come through a new imagination, that which is to come through spiritual science at all.

All that which men think of such thoughts, which are unreal, will become essential. The earth will be covered, as it is now covered with a layer of air, as it is sometimes covered with swarms of locusts, with terrible mineral-plant spiders, which very intelligently, but terribly viciously, spin themselves into one another. And man, in so far as he has not enlivened his shadowy intellectual concepts, instead of uniting his being with the beings who have wanted to descend since the last third of the nineteenth century, will have to unite his being with these terrible mineral-plant spider-animals. He will himself live together with these spider-creatures, and he will have to seek his further progress in world existence in that development which this spider-creatures then assume.“ (Lit.:GA 204, p. 244f)

Literature
References to the work of Rudolf Steiner follow Rudolf Steiner's Collected Works (CW or GA), Rudolf Steiner Verlag, Dornach/Switzerland, unless otherwise stated.
Email: verlag@steinerverlag.com URL: www.steinerverlag.com.
Index to the Complete Works of Rudolf Steiner - Aelzina Books
A complete list by Volume Number and a full list of known English translations you may also find at Rudolf Steiner's Collected Works
Rudolf Steiner Archive - The largest online collection of Rudolf Steiner's books, lectures and articles in English.
Rudolf Steiner Audio - Recorded and Read by Dale Brunsvold
steinerbooks.org - Anthroposophic Press Inc. (USA)
Rudolf Steiner Handbook - Christian Karl's proven standard work for orientation in Rudolf Steiner's Collected Works for free download as PDF.
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