Cognitive science - Revision history

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	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.

			== Current developments ==

			The computer model of mind has been subjected to sharp criticism in recent decades. This criticism has two main sources: First, the description of the brain by '''cognitive neuroscience''' has developed rapidly. This is reflected, for example, in the increasing importance of [[w:medical imaging\|medical imaging]] techniques, which make it implausible not to consider the brain in the study of the mind. On the other hand, other successful approaches have developed, such as connectionism and neural network modelling. [[w:Artificial neural networks\|Artificial neural networks]] are programmed, among other things, to simulate the activities of neuron associations. It is doubtful to what extent a distinction between software and hardware level is still possible here.

			Other alternative paradigms in cognitive science are, for example, dynamism, [[w:artificial life\|artificial life]] and embodied and situated cognitive science. According to dynamism, [[w:dynamical systems theory\|dynamical systems theory]] provides a suitable model of cognitive behaviour because cognitive behaviour always occurs in a temporal context and requires temporal coordination. It is postulated that this temporal aspect of cognition, which is neglected in the computer model of the mind, is essential. On the other hand, this approach questions the centrality of internal representation and symbol manipulation (cf. symbolism), since these concepts are not part of a dynamic explanation.

			"[[w:Artificial life\|Artificial life]]" is a term that contrasts with artificial intelligence: instead of solving abstract tasks (such as analysing chess positions), which often seems difficult to us humans because of the sheer number of possible solutions, but is easy for computers, we should first understand how to cope with supposedly mundane everyday problems. Many tasks that seem simple to us (such as walking, recognising friends and enemies, catching a ball ...) can currently not be mastered by computers or robots at all or only to a very limited extent.

	== See also ==		== See also ==

Odyssee at 07:17, 25 May 2022

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	The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.		The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.

	In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''~~Verbal Behavior. By~~ B. F. ~~Skinner~~''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].		In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''A Review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].

	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.

Odyssee at 07:16, 25 May 2022

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	The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.		The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.

	In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}}.</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].		In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].

	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.

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Development of cognitive science

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	The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.		The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.

	In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky]]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}}.</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].		In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}}.</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].

	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.

	== See also ==		== See also ==

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 '''Cognitive science''' is the result of interdisciplinary efforts between [[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], [[computer science]]/[[artificial intelligence]], [[linguistics]] and [[philosophy]], but also [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]]. Its central subject is [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] [[experience]], which is often located between the sensory and motor systems, as well as the processing of information in the context of human thought and decision-making. This includes, for example, [[perception]], [[thinking]], [[judgement]], [[memory]], [[learning]] and [[language]]. Its subject area is not limited to cognition, but just as much encompasses [[emotion]], [[motivation]] and [[volition]].<ref>Cf. Margaret Boden: ''Mind as Machine. A History of Cognitive Science'', Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 10ff.</ref>
 Cognitive science partly abstracts from the question of whether cognition is studied in organic systems or living beings, or in artificial systems such as computers or robots, by considering cognitive processes as information processing.
 == See also ==
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 [[Category:Cognitive science]]
 [[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]

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	'''Cognitive science''' is an interdisciplinary science ~~for~~ the ~~study~~ of [[~~conscious~~]] and ~~potentially conscious~~ [[~~mental~~]] processes.		'''Cognitive science''' is the result of interdisciplinary efforts between [[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], [[computer science]]/[[artificial intelligence]], [[linguistics]] and [[philosophy]], but also [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]]. Its central subject is [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] [[experience]], which is often located between the sensory and motor systems, as well as the processing of information in the context of human thought and decision-making. This includes, for example, [[perception]], [[thinking]], [[judgement]], [[memory]], [[learning]] and [[language]]. Its subject area is not limited to cognition, but just as much encompasses [[emotion]], [[motivation]] and [[volition]].<ref>Cf. Margaret Boden: ''Mind as Machine. A History of Cognitive Science'', Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 10ff.</ref>

			Cognitive science partly abstracts from the question of whether cognition is studied in organic systems or living beings, or in artificial systems such as computers or robots, by considering cognitive processes as information processing.

	== See also ==		== See also ==
	* [[Cognition]]		* [[Cognition]]
	* {{WikipediaEN\|Cognitive science}}		* {{WikipediaEN\|Cognitive science}}

			== References ==
			<references />

	[[Category:Cognitive science]]		[[Category:Cognitive science]]
	[[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]		[[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]

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	== See also ==		== See also ==
			* [[Cognition]]
	* {{WikipediaEN\|Cognitive science}}		* {{WikipediaEN\|Cognitive science}}

	[[Category:Cognitive science]]		[[Category:Cognitive science]]
	[[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]		[[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]

Odyssee: Created page with "'''Cognitive science''' is an interdisciplinary science for the study of conscious and potentially conscious mental processes. == See also == * {{WikipediaEN|Cognitiv..."

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Created page with "'''Cognitive science''' is an interdisciplinary science for the study of conscious and potentially conscious mental processes. == See also == * {{WikipediaEN|Cognitiv..."

New page

'''Cognitive science''' is an interdisciplinary science for the study of [[conscious]] and potentially conscious [[mental]] processes.

== See also ==
* {{WikipediaEN|Cognitive science}}

[[Category:Cognitive science]]
[[de:Kognitionswissenschaft]]

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	The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.		The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.

	In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''~~Verbal Behavior. By~~ B. F. ~~Skinner~~''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].		In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''A Review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].

	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.

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	The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.		The development of cognitive science is associated by some with the notion of a so-called "'''cognitive turn'''" (c. 1940-1970). Until then, [[w:behaviourism\|behaviourism]] had played an authoritative role in [[psychology]] and [[philosophy of mind]]. Behaviourism had emerged as a reaction to the problems of introspection as a psychological research method. Introspective accounts of the mental inner life were not externally verifiable by scientists. Behaviourism drew the conclusion from this that psychology had to limit itself to a study of behaviour. In the philosophy of mind, [[w:Gilbert Ryle\|Gilbert Ryle]], for example, went one step further and claimed that mental states were no more than behavioural dispositions.

	In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}}.</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].		In 1956, the ''Symposium on Information Theory'' took place at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology\|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], with the participation of [[AI]] pioneers [[w:Allen Newell\|Allen Newell]], [[w:Herbert A. Simon\|Herbert A. Simon]] and [[w:Marvin Minsky\|Marvin Minsky]], as well as the linguist [[w:Noam Chomsky\|Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky presented a sharp critique of behaviourism<ref>Noam Chomsky: ''Verbal Behavior. By B. F. Skinner''. In: ''Language''. 35, Nr. 1, New York 1959, ISSN 0097-8507, pS. 26–58, {{DOI\|10.2307/411334}} [https://chomsky.info/1967____/ online text].</ref>, which itself was heavily criticised<ref>Kenneth MacCorquodale: ''On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior''. In: ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior''. 13, Nr. 1, 1970, p. 83-99, {{PMC\|1333660}}</ref>, and introduced his influential transformational grammar. Newell and Simon presented the [[w:Logic Theorist\|Logic Theorist]], which was the first to independently "prove" a theorem of mathematics. Important precursors of this development were the formulation of [[w:cybernetics\|cybernetics]] by [[w:Norbert Wiener\|Norbert Wiener]] and the work of [[w:Alan Turing\|Alan Turing]], who designed the [[w:Turing machine\|Turing machine]] and developed the [[w:Turing test\|Turing test]].

	Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.		Cognitive science, which was constituted in the context of the developments described above, was based on a central assumption called the "[[computer model of mind]]". This refers to the thesis that the [[brain]] is an information-processing system and works in principle like a computer. The distinction between [[mind]] and brain can be understood analogously to the distinction between [[w:software\|software]] and [[w:hardware\|hardware]]. Just as software is determined by [[w:data structure\|data structure]]s and [[algorithm]]s, the mind is determined by mental representations and computational processes. Just as the abstract description of software is possible without directly examining the hardware, an abstract description of mental abilities should be possible without directly examining the brain. And just as the existence of a software level was easily compatible with [[materialism]], the mental level should also be embedded in a materialist interpretation.